General chatbot acceptance, enjoyment, perceived risk, and value (G-CAVS): Scale development and validation

Seyat Polat; Günter Renner

doi:10.30935/cedtech/17878

Seyat Polat ¹ ^* , Günter Renner ¹

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CONT ED TECHNOLOGY, Volume 18, Issue 1, Article No: ep627

https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/17878

Submitted: 22 September 2025, Published Online: 06 February 2026

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Abstract

This study was conducted within the context of the KI meets vhb project funded by the Virtuelle Hochschule Bayern, which addresses the use of artificial intelligence applications in university-based teacher education. Despite the increasing use of chatbots in teacher education programs, there is a lack of comprehensive and psychometrically validated instruments to assess pre-service teachers’ perceptions of different types of education chatbots. To address this gap, the present study reports the development and validation of a scale designed to measure pre-service teachers’ perceptions of different types of chatbots used in educational contexts. The technology acceptance model (TAM, TAM 3) and the value-based adoption model (VAM) served as the theoretical foundation in the development of the scale items. Data were collected from 224 German pre-service teachers enrolled in university-based teacher education programs. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a four-factor structure, with strong model fit indices. Criterion-related validity provided initial support for the scale, as significant associations with chatbot usage frequency were observed for all dimensions except perceived risk. The four-factor structure of the scale was further confirmed in an independent sample of 263 in-service teachers in Türkiye, demonstrating the robustness of the model across different teacher populations. Overall, the G-CAVS scale emerged as a valid and reliable instrument for assessing perceptions of chatbots in teacher education contexts, with implications for broader pre-service teachers’ populations beyond the present samples.

Keywords: chatbot scale, scale development, technology acceptance, pre-service teachers, artificial intelligence in education

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Citation

Polat, S., & Renner, G. (2026). General chatbot acceptance, enjoyment, perceived risk, and value (G-CAVS): Scale development and validation. Contemporary Educational Technology, 18(1), ep627. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/17878

Polat, S., and Renner, G. (2026). General chatbot acceptance, enjoyment, perceived risk, and value (G-CAVS): Scale development and validation. Contemporary Educational Technology, 18(1), ep627. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/17878

Polat S, Renner G. General chatbot acceptance, enjoyment, perceived risk, and value (G-CAVS): Scale development and validation. CONT ED TECHNOLOGY. 2026;18(1), ep627. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/17878

Polat, Seyat, and Günter Renner. "General chatbot acceptance, enjoyment, perceived risk, and value (G-CAVS): Scale development and validation". Contemporary Educational Technology 2026 18 no. 1 (2026): ep627. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/17878

Polat, Seyat et al. "General chatbot acceptance, enjoyment, perceived risk, and value (G-CAVS): Scale development and validation". Contemporary Educational Technology, vol. 18, no. 1, 2026, ep627. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/17878

Polat S, Renner G. General chatbot acceptance, enjoyment, perceived risk, and value (G-CAVS): Scale development and validation. CONT ED TECHNOLOGY. 2026;18(1):ep627. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/17878